Binary, decimal and hexadecimal numbers

Binary, decimal and hexadecimal are easier to understand through an exact rule, unit or bit representation than through generic network troubleshooting. Before calculating, identify what is measured, the input units, and the expected output format.

How to check the calculation

Write the conversion or formula, perform it, and verify with the reverse operation. Do not confuse bits with bytes or decimal with binary and hexadecimal representation. For chmod, calculate read/write/execute separately for owner, group and others. Download time remains an estimate because rate varies and protocols add overhead.

The detail that matters

A quick cross-check is 1010₂ = 10₁₀ = A₁₆ and 11111111₂ = 255₁₀ = FF₁₆. Hexadecimal is compact because one hex digit represents four bits, which is why byte values are conveniently written as two hex digits. You can verify the result with 2ip number-base converter.